NO COOL RIDE THIS!

SEEING RED: A traffic policeman lends a hand along with others while pushing one of the Capital’s newly-acquired air-conditioned buses that broke down near the Oberoi flyover in south Delhi on Friday afternoon. After the bus developed a technical snag, passengers were asked to get down and make their own arrangements for the onward journey. The swanky red buses are part of Delhi Transport Corporation (DTC)’s new air-conditioned fleet

Cancel faculty quota, demand IIT directors

Top Council To Take On HRD

Hemali Chhapia | TNN

Mumbai: IIT directors are doing a Venugopal. The seven IIT heads have expressed their dissent against implementing reservations for faculty appointments and have decided to wrestle with the Union HRD ministry over the issue, just like the former AIIMS boss who took on health minister Anbumani Ramadoss.
At a meeting of the Standing Committee of the IIT Council (SCIC) in New Delhi on Friday, the directors took a tough stand against the HRD ministry’s recent order that there should be reservations for teaching posts in the IITs. ‘‘We are all against reservations for faculty appointments. The IIT council is now going to take up the matter with the ministry. We have demanded that IITs be considered on a par with other institutes of national importance where there are no such reservations,’’ said a director on condition of anonymity.
Another IIT director who did not want to be identified said they had a ‘‘lengthy discussion on the issue of faculty reservations and the result was rather positive’’.
Most directors vetoed faculty reservations and stated that the government should revoke the decision. Institutes of national importance include the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) and the Allahabad-based Harish-Chandra Research Institute, which conducts advanced research in physics.
The June 9 government order sent to all IITs says that 15%, 7.5% and 27% teaching positions be reserved for SC, ST and OBC categories respectively. At present, IITs have reservations for backward category candidates only in administrative posts, from attendants to the level of deputy registrar. According to the order, posts must be reserved for lecturers and assistant professors in all subjects of science and technology. In other areas, like management, social sciences and humanities, reservations should be applied up to the professor level, the seniormost position.
M Anandakrishnan, chairman of the board of governors at IIT-Kanpur and also on the council, said he was not comfortable discussing the ‘‘internal matter’’ at this stage, as the issue was ‘‘extremely sensitive’’.
Sources said the issue of faculty reservations was not taken up earlier by the IIT council and the order was thrust upon the directors by the ministry. Besides the seven directors and Anandakrishnan, SCIC also has C N R Rao, principal scientific adviser to the PM. Rao is chairman of the council. V S Ramamurthy, chairman of the board of governors at IIT-Delhi, is also on the council.

India faces a drought of teachers

Education is supposed to be the first step in nation-building. But India simply doesn’t have enough teachers. The country already faces a shortage of 8 lakh teachers in primary and middle schools. And the situation is going to get even worse.
About 10% of teachers at this stage are above 55 years of age. With 6.5% teachers expected to retire or leave the profession each year, some 35 lakh teachers will be left at the primary and middle level by 2011 — a colossal shortfall of almost 25 lakh teachers.
That’s the worrying conclusion that emerges after looking at latest figures available from the District Information System for Education. If you consider the total number of children aged 5-14, who should be studying in Classes I-VIII, there were about 24 crore children in this age group in 2006. The recommended pupil-teacher ratio for primary classes is one teacher for 40 students — though in advanced countries, like the US or the UK, and even in China, this ratio is already below 30. However, even going by the ratio of 1:40, India needs 60 lakh teachers for Classes I-VIII, and has just 52 lakh — a figure which is set to shrink further.
The pupil-teacher ratio improves for higher classes — 1:33 for Classes IX to XII, 1:25 in higher education. But that’s because many students drop out. A more realistic picture emerges if you consider the total number in various age groups that could potentially be studying. If everyone in the age group 15-19 years were to start attending school, India would need about 38 lakh teachers for Classes IX to XII at a pupil-teacher ratio of 1:30 for higher classes. It actually has just 26 lakh teachers, a shortage of 12 lakh. Govt focusing on quantity at cost of quality
India is facing a shortage of 8 lakh teachers in primary and middle schools. We are not feeling the crunch yet because enrollment is still low, drop-outs are high and so the present number of teachers are managing. But consider this: the right to education has been made a fundamental right and the government is working out its implementation. Once it becomes operational, children will have to study, and the government will be running short of teachers.
So, what is the government doing about this? Well, its focusing on quantity, even at the cost of quality. Teachers qualify from teachers training colleges (or their equivalents). In 1995, the National Council of Teachers Education (NCTE) was given statutory powers, including the power to recognize teachers education colleges, and set their quality standards. According to latest data, it has granted recognition to over 10,000 colleges since 1995.
In the process, NCTE relaxed the minimum norms for appointment of teachers who would be teaching future teachers. Thus, students pursuing BEd degrees are being taught by teachers who themselves have BEds, according to the latest NCTE norms.
In violation of UGC norms, these teachers need not have cleared the National Eligibility Test, a mandatory provision for teaching a graduate degree course.
In the desperation to churn out teachers in large numbers, little attention is being paid to their qualifications. According to a study by the National University of Educational Planning and Education (NUEPA), about a quarter of all teachers taking Classes I to VIII have themselves studied only till the secondary stage. Another quarter have studied up to the senior secondary stage. So, educational qualification of almost half of all teachers is senior secondary or below. And it’s not as if they are being trained while in service. Only 31% of teachers got inservice training, as per the study.
Several state governments are also appointing para-teachers, or contractual teachers. Although at the all-India level, the proportion of para-teachers among all teachers is about 10%, several states have appointed them in large numbers. Jharkhand has about 39% para-teachers, UP 25%, Chhattisgarh 17%, Bihar and Andhra Pradesh about 14%. About 44% of these para-teachers are untrained and not specifically qualified to teach children. They are paid anything between Rs 1,500 and Rs 2,500 per month. It isn’t hard to imagine their motivation levels.
Regular teachers don’t fare much better. While pay scales vary from state to state, the central figure which serves as a benchmark is Rs 4,500 for primary school, Rs 5,500 for secondary level (graduate teachers) and Rs 6,500 for senior secondary level (post-graduate teachers). In many private schools, the pay is lower.
In higher education, the regulation of qualifications for teachers in general colleges and universities is much more stringent with norms being laid down by the UGC. However, there is considerable laxity within those norms. A study of the assessments done by the National Assessment & Accreditation Council (NAAC) of 1,473 colleges showed that about a quarter of teachers were not permanent — they were either classified as ‘temporary’ or ‘part-time’. In the latter two categories, over 80% of the teachers only had postgraduate degrees.
Among permanent teachers, over 30% were PhDs and 20% were MPhils, but among the temporary and part-time teachers the share of PhDs and MPhils was just 15-18%.
Whether it is schools or higher education institutions, having short-term appointments with low qualifications appears to be the policy of choice, perhaps to cut down on costs. But this begs the question, what will be the quality of education provided by such a system?

15 and ignorant about sex!

Indians enjoy a fulfilling sex life but get their first formal sex education only around 15 years of age as compared to the West where such lessons start from 12, says a new study.

Though Indians know how to protect themselves from sexually transmitted infections and HIV/AIDS, awareness on how to avoid pregnancy is very low. These are the findings of the “Face of Global Sex 2008 – The path to sexual confidence” survey conducted among 26,000 people in 26 countries to explore the effectiveness of sex education.

“India starts sex education for children a little after 15 years, though in Western countries it starts from 12 onwards,” the report said. This could be one of the reasons why Indians had little knowledge of how to avoid pregnancy. Indians scored a mere 70 per cent, even less than Japan at 70.9 per cent. The highest was scored by South Africa (86.5 per cent) and Spain (86 per cent).

“These results highlight the need for good school-based education. Unfortunately, in many countries high quality school-based sexual education is lacking,” the report said.

The study also found that most Asian countries are well behind Western countries when it came to being confident about protecting themselves against sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and HIV/AIDS. It pointed out that in Mexico, a child receives formal sex education at the age of 12 – perhaps the reason why its people scored one of the highest (81.6 per cent) on overall confidence about sex.

“Comprehensive and inclusive sex education between the ages of 11 and 16 is vital for people to develop sexual confidence in later life. Also, those who have more confidence are better equipped to protect themselves against STIs and unwanted pregnancies,” it said.

In Asia, India and China are the two countries that start sex education in school when children are 15 years and above. Other countries in the region start education either a little before or a little after a child turns 14. Indians, however, seemed to fare better as far as other Asian countries were concerned on knowing where to go for help and guidance on sex.

While India scored 68.8 per cent, Malaysia stood at 67.6 per cent and China scored 66.1 when it came to knowing where to go for help on sex. The other countries were Singapore (66.1 per cent), Hong Kong (63.2 per cent) and Thailand (61.7 per cent).

The survey showed that Japan scored less in terms of most criteria – not only in Asia but globally too. Despite Japan starting sex education at 12 years, they are the least confident about sex (58.8 per cent), have no idea whom to turn to for guidance (42.4 per cent) and how to avoid pregnancy (70.9 per cent).

No wonder people in Japan do not lead a happy and fulfilling sex life. They scored 54.3 per cent, the lowest in the world with the highest scored by Brazil (79.6 per cent), Mexicans (78.4 per cent) and Nigerians (78.2 per cent).

India scored 72.4 per cent as far as having a good sex life was concerned. As compared to other Asian countries, it scored a little less than Malaysia that got 73.5 per cent. In this aspect, India was also better off than Germany, France, Australia, Poland, Russia, Singapore and Thailand, the report said.

The report also found that although parents and guardians were the most successful confidence boosters, they were only listed as the eighth most likely source to be approached for sex education – falling well behind friends, the internet and TV.

There were also distinct gender differences in terms of where people go for information on sexual issues. Males were more likely to use the media – magazines, the internet, TV and radio or institutional sources. Females, on the other hand, preferred more interpersonal sources, such as parents, partners, family and doctors.

Air travel in the tropics is worse for climate

LONDON: Planning to fly off to the tropics? Well, its time you reconsidered your holiday plans, for according to a new research, a typical flight there has a greater impact on global warming than a flight in temperate latitudes.

As well as producing carbon dioxide and contrails, planes also produce nitrogen oxide, which triggers both the creation of the warming gas ozone, and the destruction of another greenhouse gas, methane, according to the study.

According to Keith Shine of the University of Reading, UK, in mid-latitudes, the ozone and methane reactions cancel each other out and you get zero net warming from nitrogen oxide emissions, reports New Scientist .

But the brighter sunlight in the tropics is very efficient at converting nitrogen oxide to ozone – in fact it creates ozone five times faster than in the air of mid-latitudes, according to Shine’s calculations.

Whereas methane destruction only increases marginally, Shine added.

Worryingly, the warming effects of ozone are particularly strong at a plane’s typical cruising altitude of 35,000 feet, he adds.

The research raises the question of whether future attempts to control aircraft emissions should consider extra penalties for flights in tropical countries where air travel is booming. India, for instance, has the fastest growing airline fleet in the world.

The study is published in the Journal of Geophysical Research .

Engineering

Engineering portal

Engineering is the discipline and profession of applying scientific knowledge and utilizing natural laws and physical resources in order to design and implement materials, structures, machines, devices, systems, and processes that realize a desired objective and meet specified criteria. The American Engineers’ Council for Professional Development (ECPD, the predecessor of ABET^[1]) has defined engineering as follows:

“[T]he creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation and safety to life and property.”^[2][3][4]

One who practices engineering is called an engineer, and those licensed to do so may have more formal designations such as Professional Engineer, Chartered Engineer, or Incorporated Engineer. The broad discipline of engineering encompasses a range of more specialized subdisciplines, each with a more specific emphasis on certain fields of application and particular areas of technology.

Contents [hide] 1 History 1.1 Ancient Era 1.2 Middle Era 1.3 Renaissance Era 1.4 Modern Era 2 Main Branches of Engineering 3 Methodology 3.1 Problem solving 3.2 Computer use 4 Engineering in a social context 5 Cultural presence 6 Legislation 7 Relationships with other disciplines 7.1 Science 7.2 Medicine and biology 7.3 Art 7.4 Other fields 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links

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[edit] History

The Watt steam engine, a major driver in the industrial revolution, underscores the importance of Engineering in modern history. This model is on display at the main building of the ETSIIM in Madrid, Spain

The concept of engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions such as the pulley, lever, and wheel. Each of these inventions is consistent with the modern definition of engineering, exploiting basic mechanical principles to develop useful tools and objects.

The term engineering itself has a much more recent etymology, deriving from the word engineer, which itself dates back to 1325, when an engine’er (literally, one who operates an engine) originally referred to “a constructor of military engines.”^[5] In this context, now obsolete, an “engine” referred to a military machine, i. e., a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a catapult). The word “engine” itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium (c. 1250), meaning “innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention.”^[6]

Later, as the design of civilian structures such as bridges and buildings matured as a technical discipline, the term civil engineering^[4] entered the lexicon as a way to distinguish between those specializing in the construction of such non-military projects and those involved in the older discipline of military engineering (the original meaning of the word “engineering,” now largely obsolete, with notable exceptions that have survived to the present day such as military engineering corps, e. g., the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers).

[edit] Ancient Era

The Acropolis and the Parthenon in Greece, the Roman aquaducts, Via Appia and the Colosseum, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the Pharos of Alexandria, the pyramids in Egypt, Teotihuacán and the cities and pyramids of the Mayan, Inca and Aztec Empires, the Great Wall of China, among many others, stand as a testament to the ingenuity and skill of the ancient civil and military engineers.

The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep.^[4] As one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser (the Step Pyramid) at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630-2611 BC. ^[7] He may also have been responsible for the first known use of columns in architecture.

[edit] Middle Era

An Iraqi Muslim by the name of al-Jazari helped pave the way for today’s’ modern machines when sometime in between 1174 and 1200 he built five machines to pump water for the kings of the Turkish Artuqid dynasty and their palaces. The double-acting reciprocating piston pump was instrumental in the later development of engineering in general because it was the first machine to incorporate both the connecting rod and the crankshaft, thus, converting rotational motion to reciprocating motion.^[8]

British Charter Engineer Donald Routledge Hill once wrote:

“It is impossible to over emphasize the importance of al-Jazari’s work in the history of engineering, it provides a wealth of instructions for the design, manufacture and assembly of machines.”

Even today some toys still use the cam-lever mechanism found in al-Jazari’s combination lock and automaton. Besides over 50 ingenuis mechanical devices, al-Jazari also developed and made innovations to segmental gears, mechanical controls, escapement mechanisms, clocks, robotics, and protocols for designing and manufacturing methods.

[edit] Renaissance Era

The first electrical engineer is considered to be William Gilbert, with his 1600 publication of De Magnete, who was the originator of the term “electricity“.^[9]

The first steam engine was built in 1698 by mechanical engineer Thomas Savery. The development of this device gave rise to the industrial revolution in the coming decades, allowing for the beginnings of mass production.

With the rise of engineering as a profession in the eighteenth century, the term became more narrowly applied to fields in which mathematics and science were applied to these ends. Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering.

[edit] Modern Era

Electrical Engineering can trace its origins in the experiments of Alessandro Volta in the 1800s, the experiments of Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the electric motor in 1872. The work of James Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of Electronics. The later inventions of the vacuum tube and the transistor further accelerated the development of Electronics to such an extent that electrical and electronics engineers currently outnumber their colleagues of any other Engineering specialty.^[4]

The inventions of Thomas Savery and the Scottish engineer James Watt gave rise to modern Mechanical Engineering. The development of specialized machines and their maintenance tools during the industrial revolution led to the rapid growth of Mechanical Engineering both in its birthplace Britain and abroad.^[4]

Even though in its modern form Mechanical engineering originated in Britain, its origins trace back to early antiquity where ingenuous machines were developed both in the civilian and military domains. The Antikythera mechanism, the earliest known model of a mechanical computer in history, and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes, including his death ray, are examples of early mechanical engineering. Some of Archimedes’ inventions as well as the Antikythera mechanism required sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing or epicyclic gearing, two key principles in machine theory that helped design the gear trains of the Industrial revolution and are still widely used today in diverse fields such as robotics and automotive engineering.^[10]

Chemical Engineering, like its counterpart Mechanical Engineering, developed in the nineteenth century during the Industrial Revolution.^[4] Industrial scale manufacturing demanded new materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for large scale production of chemicals was such that a new industry was created, dedicated to the development and large scale manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial plants.^[4] The role of the chemical engineer was the design of these chemical plants and processes.^[4]

Aeronautical Engineering deals with aircraft design while Aerospace Engineering is a more modern term that expands the reach envelope of the discipline by including spacecraft design.^[11] Its origins can be traced back to the aviation pioneers around the turn of the century from the 19th century to the 20th although the work of Sir George Cayley has recently been dated as being from the last decade of the 18th century. Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering.^[12] Only a decade after the successful flights by the Wright brothers, the 1920s saw extensive development of aeronautical engineering through development of World War I military aircraft. Meanwhile, research to provide fundamental background science continued by combining theoretical physics with experiments.

The first PhD in engineering (technically, applied science and engineering) awarded in the United States went to Willard Gibbs at Yale University in 1863; it was also the second PhD awarded in science in the U.S.^[13]

In 1990, with the rise of computer technology, the first search engine was built by computer engineer Alan Emtage.

[edit] Main Branches of Engineering

Main article: List of engineering branches

Engineering, much like science, is a broad discipline which is often broken down into several sub-disciplines. These disciplines concern themselves with differing areas of engineering work. Although initially an engineer will be trained in a specific discipline, throughout an engineer’s career the engineer may become multi-disciplined, having worked in several of the outlined areas. Historically the main Branches of Engineering are categorized as follows:^[11][14]

• Aerospace Engineering – The design of aircraft, spacecraft and related topics.
• Chemical Engineering – The conversion of raw materials into usable commodities.
• Civil Engineering – The design and construction of public and private works, such as infrastructure, bridges and buildings.
• Electrical Engineering – The design of electrical systems, such as transformers, as well as electronic goods.
• Mechanical Engineering – The design of physical or mechanical systems, such as engines, powertrains, kinematic chains and vibration isolation equipment.

With the rapid advancement of Technology many new fields are gaining prominence and new branches are developing such as Computer Engineering, Software Engineering, Nanotechnology, Molecular engineering, Mechatronics etc. These new specialties sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches such as Mechanical Engineering and Mechatronics and Electrical and Computer Engineering.

For each of these fields there exists considerable overlap, especially in the areas of the application of sciences to their disciplines such as physics, chemistry and mathematics.

[edit] Methodology

Design of a turbine requires collaboration from engineers from many fields

Engineers apply the sciences of physics and mathematics to find suitable solutions to problems or to make improvements to the status quo. More than ever, Engineers are now required to have knowledge of relevant sciences for their design projects, as a result, they keep on learning new material throughout their career. If multiple options exist, engineers weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. The crucial and unique task of the engineer is to identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to produce a successful result. It is usually not enough to build a technically successful product; it must also meet further requirements. Constraints may include available resources, physical, imaginative or technical limitations, flexibility for future modifications and additions, and other factors, such as requirements for cost, safety, marketability, productibility, and serviceability. By understanding the constraints, engineers derive specifications for the limits within which a viable object or system may be produced and operated.

[edit] Problem solving

Engineers use their knowledge of science, mathematics, and appropriate experience to find suitable solutions to a problem. Engineering is considered a branch of applied mathematics and science. Creating an appropriate mathematical model of a problem allows them to analyze it (sometimes definitively), and to test potential solutions. Usually multiple reasonable solutions exist, so engineers must evaluate the different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best meets their requirements. Genrich Altshuller, after gathering statistics on a large number of patents, suggested that compromises are at the heart of “low-level” engineering designs, while at a higher level the best design is one which eliminates the core contradiction causing the problem.

Engineers typically attempt to predict how well their designs will perform to their specifications prior to full-scale production. They use, among other things: prototypes, scale models, simulations, destructive tests, nondestructive tests, and stress tests. Testing ensures that products will perform as expected. Engineers as professionals take seriously their responsibility to produce designs that will perform as expected and will not cause unintended harm to the public at large. Engineers typically include a factor of safety in their designs to reduce the risk of unexpected failure. However, the greater the safety factor, the less efficient the design may be.

[edit] Computer use

A computer simulation of high velocity air flow around the Space Shuttle during re-entry.

As with all modern scientific and technological endeavors, computers and software play an increasingly important role. As well as the typical business application software there are a number of computer aided applications (CAx) specifically for engineering. Computers can be used to generate models of fundamental physical processes, which can be solved using numerical methods.

One of the most widely used tools in the profession is computer-aided design (CAD) software which enables engineers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and schematics of their designs. CAD together with Digital mockup (DMU) and CAE software such as finite element method analysis allows engineers to create models of designs that can be analyzed without having to make expensive and time-consuming physical prototypes. These allow products and components to be checked for flaws; assess fit and assembly; study ergonomics; and to analyze static and dynamic characteristics of systems such as stresses, temperatures, electromagnetic emissions, electrical currents and voltages, digital logic levels, fluid flows, and kinematics. Access and distribution of all this information is generally organized with the use of Product Data Management software.^[15]

There are also many tools to support specific engineering tasks such as Computer-aided manufacture (CAM) software to generate CNC machining instructions; Manufacturing Process Management software for production engineering; EDA for printed circuit board (PCB) and circuit schematics for electronic engineers; MRO applications for maintenance management; and AEC software for civil engineering.

In recent years the use of computer software to aid the development of goods has collectively come to be known as Product Lifecycle Management (PLM).^[16]

[edit] Engineering in a social context

Engineering is a subject that ranges from large collaborations to small individual projects. Almost all engineering projects are beholden to some sort of financing agency: a company, a set of investors, or a government. The few types of engineering that are minimally constrained by such issues are pro bono engineering and open design engineering.

By its very nature engineering is bound up with society and human behavior. Every product or construction used by modern society will have been influenced by engineering design. Engineering design is a very powerful tool to make changes to environment, society and economies, and its application brings with it a great responsibility, as represented by many of the Engineering Institutions codes of practice and ethics. Whereas medical ethics is a well-established field with considerable consensus, engineering ethics is far less developed, and engineering projects can be subject to considerable controversy. Just a few examples of this from different engineering disciplines are the development of nuclear weapons, the Three Gorges Dam, the design and use of Sports Utility Vehicles and the extraction of oil. There is a growing trend amongst western engineering companies to enact serious Corporate and Social Responsibility policies, but many companies do not have these.

Engineering is a key driver of human development.^[17] Sub-Saharan Africa in particular has a very small engineering capacity which results in many African nations being unable to develop crucial infrastructure without outside aid. The attainment of many of the Millennium Development Goals requires the achievement of sufficient engineering capacity to develop infrastructure and sustainable technological development.^[18] All overseas development and relief NGOs make considerable use of engineers to apply solutions in disaster and development scenarios. A number of charitable organizations aim to use engineering directly for the good of mankind:

• Engineers Without Borders
• Engineers Against Poverty
• Registered Engineers for Disaster Relief
• Engineers for a Sustainable World

[edit] Cultural presence

Engineering is a well respected profession. For example, in Canada it ranks as one of the public’s most trusted professions.^[19]

Sometimes engineering has been seen as a somewhat dry, uninteresting field in popular culture, and has also been thought to be the domain of nerds. For example, the cartoon character Dilbert is an engineer. One difficulty in increasing public awareness of the profession is that average people, in the typical run of ordinary life, do not ever have any personal dealings with engineers, even though they benefit from their work every day. By contrast, it is common to visit a doctor at least once a year, the chartered accountant at tax time, and, occasionally, even a lawyer.

This has not always been so – most British school children in the 1950s were brought up with stirring tales of ‘the Victorian Engineers’, chief amongst whom were the Brunels, the Stephensons, Telford and their contemporaries.

In science fiction engineers are often portrayed as highly knowledgeable and respectable individuals who understand the overwhelming future technologies often portrayed in the genre. The Star Trek characters Montgomery Scott, Geordi La Forge, Miles O’Brien, B’Elanna Torres, and Charles Tucker are famous examples.

Occasionally, engineers may be recognized by the “Iron Ring“–a stainless steel or iron ring worn on the little finger of the dominant hand. This tradition began in 1925 in Canada for the Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer as a symbol of pride and obligation for the engineering profession. Some years later in 1972 this practice was adopted by several colleges in the United States. Members of the US Order of the Engineer accept this ring as a pledge to uphold the proud history of engineering.

A Professional Engineer’s name may be followed by the post-nominal letters PE or P.Eng in North America. In much of Europe a professional engineer is denoted by the letters IR, while in the UK and much of the Commonwealth the term Chartered Engineer applies and is denoted by the letters CEng.

[edit] Legislation

This article or section is missing citations or needs footnotes. Using inline citations helps guard against copyright violations and factual inaccuracies. (April 2007)

In most Western countries, certain engineering tasks, such as the design of bridges, electric power plants, and chemical plants, must be approved by a Professional Engineer or a Chartered Engineer or an Incorporated Engineer.

Laws protecting public health and safety mandate that a professional must provide guidance gained through education and experience. In the United States, each state tests and licenses Professional Engineers. In much of Europe and the Commonwealth professional accreditation is provided by Engineering Institutions, such as the Institution of Civil Engineers from the UK. The engineering institutions of the UK are some of the oldest in the world, and provide accreditation to many engineers around the world. In Canada the profession in each province is governed by its own engineering association. For instance, in the Province of British Columbia an engineering graduate with 4 or more years of experience in an engineering-related field will need to be registered by the Association for Professional Engineers and Geoscientists [(APEGBC)]^[20] in order to become a Professional Engineer and be granted the professional designation of P.Eng.

The federal US government, however, supervises aviation through the Federal Aviation Regulations administrated by the Dept. of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration. Designated Engineering Representatives approve data for aircraft design and repairs on behalf of the Federal Aviation Administration.

Even with strict testing and licensure, engineering disasters still occur. Therefore, the Professional Engineer, Chartered Engineer, or Incorporated Engineer adheres to a strict code of ethics. Each engineering discipline and professional society maintains a code of ethics, which the members pledge to uphold.

Refer also to the Washington accord for international accreditation details of professional engineering degrees.

[edit] Relationships with other disciplines

[edit] Science

Scientists study the world as it is; engineers create the world that has never been.

—Theodore von Kármán

There exists an overlap between the sciences and engineering practice; in engineering, one applies science. Both areas of endeavor rely on accurate observation of materials and phenomena. Both use mathematics and classification criteria to analyze and communicate observations. Scientists are expected to interpret their observations and to make expert recommendations for practical action based on those interpretations.^{[citation needed]} Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks, such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes. Conversely, in the process of developing technology engineers sometimes find themselves exploring new phenomena, thus becoming, for the moment, scientists.

In the book What Engineers Know and How They Know It,^[21] Walter Vincenti asserts that engineering research has a character different from that of scientific research. First, it often deals with areas in which the basic physics and/or chemistry are well understood, but the problems themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner. Examples are the use of numerical approximations to the Navier-Stokes equations to describe aerodynamic flow over an aircraft, or the use of Miner’s rule to calculate fatigue damage. Second, engineering research employs many semi-empirical methods that are foreign to pure scientific research, one example being the method of parameter variation.

As stated by Fung et al. in the revision to the classic engineering text, Foundations of Solid Mechanics, ^[22]

“Engineering is quite different from science. Scientists try to understand nature. Engineers try to make things that do not exist in nature. Engineers stress invention. To embody an invention the engineer must put his idea in concrete terms, and design something that people can use. That something can be a device, a gadget, a material, a method, a computing program, an innovative experiment, a new solution to a problem, or an improvement on what is existing. Since a design has to be concrete, it must have its geometry, dimensions, and characteristic numbers. Almost all engineers working on new designs find that they do not have all the needed information. Most often, they are limited by insufficient scientific knowledge. Thus they study mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and mechanics. Often they have to add to the sciences relevant to their profession. Thus engineering sciences are born.”

[edit] Medicine and biology

Leonardo DaVinci, seen here in a self-portrait, has been described as the epitome of the artist/engineer.^[23] He is also known for his studies on human anatomy and physiognomy

The study of the human body, albeit from different directions and for different purposes, is an important common link between medicine and some engineering disciplines. Medicine aims to sustain, enhance and even replace functions of the human body, if necessary, through the use of technology. Modern medicine can replace several of the body’s functions through the use of artificial organs and can significantly alter the function of the human body through artificial devices such as, for example, brain implants and pacemakers.^[24][25] The fields of Bionics and medical Bionics are dedicated to the study of synthetic implants pertaining to natural systems. Conversely, some engineering disciplines view the human body as a biological machine worth studying, and are dedicated to emulating many of its functions by replacing biology with technology. This has led to fields such as artificial intelligence, neural networks, fuzzy logic, and robotics. There are also substantial interdisciplinary interactions between engineering and medicine.^[26][27]

Both fields provide solutions to real world problems. This often requires moving forward before phenomena are completely understood in a more rigorous scientific sense and therefore experimentation and empirical knowledge is an integral part of both. Medicine, in part, studies the function of the human body. The human body, as a biological machine, has many functions that can be modeled using Engineering methods.^[28] The heart for example functions much like a pump,^[29] the skeleton is like a linked structure with levers,^[30] the brain produces electrical signals etc.^[31] These similarities as well as the increasing importance and application of Engineering principles in Medicine, led to the development of the field of biomedical engineering that utilizes concepts developed in both disciplines.

Newly emerging branches of science, such as Systems biology, are adapting analytical tools traditionally used for engineering, such as systems modeling and computational analysis, to the description of biological systems.^[28]

[edit] Art

There are connections between engineering and art;^[32] they are direct in some fields, for example, architecture, landscape architecture and industrial design (even to the extent that these disciplines may sometimes be included in a University’s Faculty of Engineering); and indirect in others.^{[32][33][34][35]} The Art Institute of Chicago, for instance, held an exhibition about the art of NASA’s aerospace design.^[36] Robert Maillart’s bridge design is perceived by some to have been deliberately artistic.^[37] At the University of South Florida, an engineering professor, through a grant with the National Science Foundation, has developed a course that connects art and engineering.^[38][33] Among famous historical figures Leonardo Da Vinci is a well known Renaissance artist and engineer, and a prime example of the nexus between art and engineering.^[23][39]

[edit] Other fields

In Political science the term engineering has been borrowed for the study of the subjects of Social engineering and Political engineering, which deal with forming political and social structures using engineering methodology coupled with political science principles..

The most intresting face in the world

this is the most interesiting face ihave ever seen on the web.

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you have to see this

Astrology

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Hand-coloured version of the anonymous Flammarion woodcut (1888).

Astrology (from Greek: ἄστρον, ἄστρου{ástron, ástrou}, “star”; and λόγος, λόγου{lógos, lógou}, “word” or “speech”) is a group of systems, traditions, and beliefs in which knowledge of the apparent relative positions of celestial bodies and related details is held to be useful in understanding, interpreting, and organizing information about personality, human affairs, and other terrestrial matters. A practitioner of astrology is called an astrologer, or, rarely, an astrologist. Numerous traditions and applications employing astrological concepts have arisen since its earliest recorded beginnings in the 3rd millennium BC.^[1][2] It has played a role in the shaping of culture, early astronomy, and other disciplines throughout history.

Astrology and astronomy were often indistinguishable before the modern era, with the desire for predictive and divinatory knowledge one of the primary motivating factors for astronomical observation. Astronomy began to diverge from astrology after a period of gradual separation from the Renaissance up until the 18th century. Eventually, astronomy distinguished itself as the scientific study of astronomical objects and phenomena without regard to the astrological speculation of these phenomena.

Astrology can be defined as the study of the positions of celestial bodies in the belief that their movements either directly influence life on Earth or correspond somehow to events experienced on a human scale.^[3] Modern astrologers define astrology as a symbolic language,^[4][5][6] an art form,^[7] and a form of divination.^[8][9] Despite differences of definitions, a common assumption of astrology is the use of celestial placements in order to explain past and present events and predict the future. Generally, the scientific community considers astrology a pseudoscience or superstition.^[10][11][12] Despite its rejection by scientists, 31% of Americans polled expressed a belief in astrology and 39% considered it scientific according to another study.^{[13][14][15][16]}

Astrology
Background
History of astrology
History of astronomy
Astrology and astronomy
Traditions
Babylonian astrology
Arab and Persian astrology
Chinese astrology
Hellenistic astrology
Indian astrology
Sidereal astrology
Western astrology
More…
Branches of horoscopic astrology
Natal astrology
Electional astrology
Horary astrology
Mundane astrology
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Categories
Astrologers
Astrological texts
Astrological writers
Astrology Portal
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Contents [hide] 1 Core beliefs 2 Traditions 2.1 Current traditions 2.2 Historical traditions 2.3 Esoteric traditions 3 The zodiac 4 Horoscopic astrology 4.1 The horoscope 4.2 Branches of horoscopic astrology 5 History of astrology 5.1 Origins 5.2 Before the scientific revolution 6 Effects on world culture 7 Astrology and science 7.1 Claims about obstacles to research 7.2 Mechanism 7.3 Research 8 See also 9 References 10 External links

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[edit] Core beliefs

The core beliefs of astrology were prevalent in most of the ancient world and are epitomized in the Hermetic maxim “as above, so below”. Tycho Brahe used a similar phrase to summarize his studies in astrology: suspiciendo despicio, “by looking up I see downward”.^[17] Although the principle that events in the heavens are mirrored by those on Earth was once generally held in most traditions of astrology around the world, in the West there has historically been a debate among astrologers over the nature of the mechanism behind astrology. The debate also covers whether or not celestial bodies are only signs or portents of events, or if they are actual causes of events through some sort of force or mechanism.^{[citation needed]}

Although the connection between celestial mechanics and terrestrial dynamics was explored first by Isaac Newton with his development of a universal theory of gravitation, claims that the gravitational effects of the celestial bodies are what accounts for astrological generalizations are not substantiated by scientific research, nor are they advocated by most astrologers.^{[citation needed]}

Most astrological traditions are based on the relative positions and movements of various real or construed celestial bodies and on the construction of implied or calculated celestial patterns as seen at the time and place of the event being studied. These are chiefly the astrological planets, dwarf planets, the asteroids, the stars, the lunar nodes, Arabic parts and hypothetical planets. The frame of reference for such apparent positions is defined by the tropical or sidereal zodiac of twelve signs on one hand, and by the local horizon (ascendant-descendant axis) and midheaven-imum coeli axis on the other. This latter (local) frame is typically further divided into the twelve astrological houses. Furthermore, the astrological aspects are used to determine the geometric/angular relationship(s) between the various celestial bodies and angles in the horoscope.

The claim of astrology to predict future trends and developments, or predictive astrology, is based on two main methods: astrological transits and astrological progressions. In astrological transits the ongoing movements of the planets are interpreted for their significance as they transit through space and the horoscope. In astrological progressions the horoscope is progressed forward in time according to set methods. Most modern astrologers no longer try to forecast actual events, but focus instead on general trends and developments. Skeptics respond that this allows astrologers to avoid making verifiable predictions, and gives them the ability to attach significance to arbitrary and unrelated events, in a way that suits their purpose.^[18]

In the past, astrologers often relied on close observation of celestial objects and the charting of their movements. Modern astrologers use data provided by astronomers which are transformed to a set of astrological tables called ephemerides, showing the changing zodiacal positions of the heavenly bodies through time.

[edit] Traditions

Zodiac signs, 16th century European woodcut

There are many traditions of astrology, some of which share similar features due to the transmission of astrological doctrines between cultures. Other traditions developed in isolation and hold different doctrines, though they too share some features due to drawing on similar astronomical sources.

[edit] Current traditions

The main traditions used by modern astrologers are:

• Vedic astrology
• Western astrology
• Chinese astrology

Vedic and Western astrology share a common ancestry as horoscopic systems of astrology, in that both traditions focus on the casting of an astrological chart or horoscope, a representation of celestial entities, for an event based on the position of the Sun, Moon, and planets at the moment of the event. However, Vedic astrology uses the sidereal zodiac, linking the signs of the zodiac to their original constellations, while Western astrology uses the tropical zodiac. Because of the precession of the equinoxes, over the centuries the twelve zodiacal signs in Western astrology no longer correspond to the same part of the sky as their original constellations. In effect, in Western astrology the link between sign and constellation has been broken, whereas in Vedic astrology it remains of paramount importance. Other differences between the two traditions include the use of 27 (or 28) nakshatras or lunar mansions, which have been used in India since Vedic times, and the system of planetary periods known as dashas.

In Chinese astrology a quite different tradition has evolved. By contrast to Western and Indian astrology, the twelve signs of the zodiac do not divide the sky, but rather the celestial equator. The Chinese evolved a system where each sign corresponds to one of twelve ‘double-hours’ that govern the day, and to one of the twelve months. Each sign of the zodiac governs a different year, and combines with a system based on the five elements of Chinese cosmology to give a 60 (12 x 5) year cycle. The term Chinese astrology is used here for convenience, but it must be recognised that versions of the same tradition exist in Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Thailand and other Asian countries.

In modern times, these traditions have come into greater contact with each other, notably with Indian and Chinese astrology having spread to the West, while awareness of Western astrology is still fairly limited in Asia. Astrology in the Western world has diversified greatly in modern times. New movements have appeared, which have jettisoned much of traditional astrology to concentrate on different approaches, such as a greater emphasis on midpoints, or a more psychological approach. Some recent Western developments include:

• Modern tropical and sidereal horoscopic astrology
• Cosmobiology
• Psychological astrology
• Sun sign astrology
• Hamburg School of Astrology
  • Uranian astrology, subset of the Hamburg School

[edit] Historical traditions

Throughout its long history, astrology has come to prominence in many regions and undergone developments and change. There are many astrological traditions that are historically important, but which have largely fallen out of use today. Astrologers still retain an interest in them and regard them as an important resource. Historically significant traditions of astrology include:

• Arab and Persian astrology (Medieval, near East)
• Babylonian astrology (Ancient, near East)
• Egyptian astrology
• Hellenistic astrology (Classical antiquity)
• Mayan astrology

The history of Western, Chinese, and Indian astrology is discussed in the main article history of astrology.

[edit] Esoteric traditions

Extract and symbol key from 17th century alchemy text.

Many mystic or esoteric traditions have links to astrology. In some cases, like Kabbalah, this involves participants incorporating elements of astrology into their own traditions. In other cases, like divinatory tarot, many astrologers themselves have incorporated the tradition into their own practice of astrology. Esoteric traditions include, but are not limited to:

• Alchemy
• Chiromancy
• Kabbalistic astrology
• Medical astrology
• Numerology
• Rosicrucian or “Rose Cross”
• Tarot divination

Historically, alchemy in the Western World was particularly allied and intertwined with traditional Babylonian-Greek style astrology; in numerous ways they were built to complement each other in the search for occult or hidden knowledge.^[19] Astrology has used the concept of the four classical elements of alchemy from antiquity up until the present day. Traditionally, each of the seven planets in the solar system known to the ancients was associated with, held dominion over, and “ruled” a certain metal.^[20]

[edit] The zodiac

Zodiac in a 6th century synagogue at Beit Alpha, Israel.

Main article: Zodiac

The zodiac is the belt or band of constellations through which the Sun, Moon, and planets transit across the sky. Astrologers noted these constellations and so attached a particular significance to them. Over time they developed the system of twelve signs of the zodiac (Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, and Pisces), based on twelve of the constellations they considered to be particularly important. The Western and Vedic zodiac signs have a common origin in the tradition of horoscopic astrology, and so are very similar in meaning. In China on the other hand, the development of the zodiac was different. Although the Chinese too have a system of twelve signs (named after animals), the Chinese zodiac refers to a pure calendrical cycle, as there are no equivalent constellations linked to it like the Western or Indian zodiacs. The common choice of twelve zodiac signs is understandable considering the interaction of the Sun and Moon was central to all forms of astrology.

The majority of Western astrologers base their work on the tropical zodiac which divides the sky into twelve equal segments of 30 degrees each, beginning with the first point of Aries, the point where the line of the earth’s celestial equator and the ecliptic (the Sun’s path through the sky) meet at the northern hemisphere spring equinox. Due to the precession of the equinoxes, the slow changing of the way Earth rotates in space, the zodiacal signs in this system bear no relation to the constellations of the same name but stay aligned to the months and seasons.

Practitioners of the Vedic astrological tradition and a minority of Western astrologers use the sidereal zodiac. This zodiac uses the same evenly divided ecliptic but approximately stays aligned to the positions of the observable constellations with the same name as the zodiacal signs. The sidereal zodiac differs from the tropical zodiac by an offset called the ayanamsa, which steadily increases as the equinoxes drift further. Furthermore, some siderealists (i.e. astrologers employing sidereal techniques) use the actual, unequal constellations of the zodiac in their work.

[edit] Horoscopic astrology

18th century Icelandic manuscript showing astrological houses and glyphs for planets and signs.

Main article: Horoscopic astrology

Horoscopic astrology is a system that was developed in the Mediterranean region and specifically Hellenistic Egypt around the late 2nd or early 1st century BCE.^[21] The tradition deals with two-dimensional diagrams of the heavens, or horoscopes, created for specific moments in time. The diagram is then used to interpret the inherent meaning underlying the alignment of celestial bodies at that moment based on a specific set of rules and guidelines. A horoscope was calculated normally for the moment of an individual’s birth, or at the beginning of an enterprise or event, because the alignments of the heavens at that moment were thought to determine the nature of the subject in question. One of the defining characteristics of this form of astrology that makes it distinct from other traditions is the computation of the degree of the Eastern horizon rising against the backdrop of the ecliptic at the specific moment under examination, otherwise known as the ascendant. Horoscopic astrology has been the most influential and widespread form of astrology across the world, especially in Africa, India, Europe, and the Middle East, and there are several major traditions of horoscopic astrology whose origins are Hellenistic, including Indian, Medieval, and most other modern Western traditions of astrology.

[edit] The horoscope

A hand-drawn horoscope.

Central to horoscopic astrology and its branches is the calculation of the horoscope or astrological chart. This two-dimensional diagrammatic representation shows the celestial bodies’ apparent positions in the heavens from the vantage of a location on Earth at a given time and place. The horoscope is also divided into twelve different celestial houses which govern different areas of life. Calculations performed in casting a horoscope involve arithmetic and simple geometry which serve to locate the apparent position of heavenly bodies on desired dates and times based on astronomical tables. In ancient Hellenistic astrology the ascendant demarcated the first celestial house of a horoscope. The word for the ascendant in Greek was horoskopos from which horoscope derives. In modern times, the word has come to refer to the astrological chart as a whole.

[edit] Branches of horoscopic astrology

Traditions of horoscopic astrology can be divided into four branches which are directed towards specific subjects or purposes. Often these branches use a unique set of techniques or a different application of the core principles of the system to a different area. Many other subsets and applications of astrology are derived from these four fundamental branches.

• Natal astrology, the study of a person’s natal chart to gain information about the individual and his/her life experience.
• Katarchic astrology, which includes both electional and event astrology. The former uses astrology to determine the most auspicious moment to begin an enterprise or undertaking, and the latter to understand everything about an event from the time at which it took place.
• Horary astrology, used to answer a specific question by studying the chart of the moment the question is posed to an astrologer.
• Mundane or world astrology, the application of astrology to world events, including weather, earthquakes, and the rise and fall of empires or religions. This includes the Astrological Ages, such as the Age of Aquarius, Age of Pisces and so on. Each age is about 2,150 years in length and many people believe these massive ages correspond to major historical events and current developments in the world

[edit] History of astrology

Main article: History of astrology

15th century image from the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry showing believed relations between areas of the body and the zodiacal signs.

[edit] Origins

The origins of much of the astrological doctrine and method that would later develop in Asia, Europe, and the Middle East are found among the ancient Babylonians and their system of celestial omens that began to be compiled around the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE. This system of celestial omens later spread either directly or indirectly through the Babylonians and Assyrians to other areas such as India, Middle East, and Greece where it merged with pre-existing indigenous forms of astrology.^{[citation needed]}. This Babylonian astrology came to Greece initially as early as the middle of the 4th century BCE, and then around the late 2nd or early 1st century BCE after the Alexandrian conquests, this Babylonian astrology was mixed with the Egyptian tradition of decanic astrology to create horoscopic astrology. This new form of astrology, which appears to have originated in Alexandrian Egypt, quickly spread across the ancient world into Europe, the Middle East and India.

[edit] Before the scientific revolution

From the classical period through the scientific revolution, astrological training played a critical role in advancing astronomical, mathematical, medical and psychological knowledge. Astrological influences included the observation and long-term tracking of celestial objects. It was astrologers who provided the first systematic documentation of the movements of the Sun, the Moon, the planets, and the stars. The differentiation between astronomy and astrology varied from place to place; they were indistinguishable in ancient Babylonia and for most of the Middle Ages, but separated to a greater degree in Ancient Greece (see astrology and astronomy). Astrology was not always uncritically accepted before the modern era; it was often challenged by Hellenistic skeptics, church authorities, and medieval Muslim astronomers.^{[citation needed]}

The pattern of astronomical knowledge gained from astrological endeavours has been historically repeated across numerous cultures, from ancient India through the classical Maya civilization to medieval Europe. Given this historical contribution, astrology has been called a protoscience along with pseudosciences such as alchemy (see “Western astrology and alchemy” below).

Many prominent thinkers, philosophers and scientists, such as Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, Galen, Paracelsus, Girolamo Cardan, Nicholas Copernicus, Galileo Galilei, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, Carl Jung and others, practiced or significantly contributed to astrology.^[22][2]

[edit] Effects on world culture

Main article: Cultural influence of astrology

Astrology has had a profound influence over the past few thousand years on Western and Eastern cultures. In the Middle Ages, when the educated of the time believed in astrology, the system of heavenly spheres and bodies was believed to reflect on the system of knowledge and the world itself below.

Astrology has had an influence on both language and literature. For example, influenza, from medieval Latin influentia meaning influence, was so named because doctors once believed epidemics to be caused by unfavorable planetary and stellar influences^[23]. The word “disaster” comes from the Italian disastro, derived from the negative prefix dis- and from Latin aster “star”, thus meaning “ill-starred”^[24]. Adjectives “lunatic” (Luna/Moon), “mercurial” (Mercury), “venereal” (Venus), “martial” (Mars), “jovial” (Jupiter/Jove), and “saturnine” (Saturn) are all old words used to describe personal qualities said to resemble or be highly influenced by the astrological characteristics of the planet, some of which are derived from the attributes of the ancient Roman gods they are named after. In literature, many writers, notably Geoffrey Chaucer^[25][26][27] and William Shakespeare,^[28][29] used astrological symbolism to add subtlety and nuance to the description of their characters’ motivation(s). More recently, Michael Ward has proposed that C.S. Lewis imbued his Chronicles of Narnia with the characteristics and symbols of the seven heavens. Often, an understanding of astrological symbolism is needed to fully appreciate such literature.

Some modern thinkers, notably Carl Jung,^[30] believe in astrology’s descriptive powers regarding the mind without necessarily subscribing to its predictive claims. In education astrology is reflected in the university education of medieval Europe, which was divided into seven distinct areas, each represented by a particular planet and known as the seven liberal arts. Dante Alighieri speculated that these arts, which grew into the sciences we know today, fitted the same structure as the planets. In music the best known example of astrology’s influence is in the orchestral suite called “The Planets” by the British composer Gustav Holst, the framework of which is based upon the astrological symbolism of the planets.

[edit] Astrology and science

Pseudoscientific Concepts
Claims:
Position of the planets determines personality and human events.
Related scientific disciplines:
Astronomy, Psychology
Year proposed:	antiquity
Original proponents:	ancient priests and astrologers
Current proponents:	Philip Berg, Rob Brezsny, Michel Gauquelin, Linda Goodman, Sydney Omarr, Joan Quigley, Jackie Stallone, Athena Starwoman, Shelley von Strunckel, Richard Tarnas

The Ptolemaic system depicted by Andreas Cellarius, 1660/61

By the time of Francis Bacon and the scientific revolution, newly emerging scientific disciplines acquired a method of systematic empirical induction validated by experimental observations, which led to the scientific revolution.^[31] At this point, astrology and astronomy began to diverge; astronomy became one of the central sciences while astrology was increasingly viewed as an occult science or superstition by natural scientists. This separation accelerated through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.^[32]

Astrology is now regarded as unscientific both by scientific bodies and by individual scientists^[33][34] and has been labeled as a pseudoscience.^[35] In 1975, the American Humanist Association published one of the most widely known modern criticisms of astrology, characterizing those who continue to have faith in the subject as doing so “in spite of the fact that there is no verified scientific basis for their beliefs, and indeed that there is strong evidence to the contrary”.^[12] Astronomer Carl Sagan found himself unable to sign the statement, not because he felt astrology had any validity at all, but because he found the statement’s tone authoritarian.^[36][37] Sagan stated that he would instead have been willing to sign a statement describing and refuting the principal tenets of astrological belief, which he believed would have been far more persuasive and would have produced much less controversy than the circulated statement.^[38]

Although astrology has had no scientific standing for some time, it has been the subject of much research among astrologers since the beginning of the twentieth century. In their landmark study of twentieth-century research into natal astrology, astrology critics Geoffrey Dean and coauthors documented this burgeoning research activity, primarily within the astrological community.^[39]

[edit] Claims about obstacles to research

Astrologers have argued that there are significant obstacles in carrying out scientific research into astrology today, including lack of funding,^[40][41] lack of background in science and statistics by astrologers,^[42] and insufficient expertise in astrology by research scientists and skeptics.^[43][40][41] There are only a handful of journals dealing with scientific research into astrology (i.e. astrological journals directed towards scientific research or scientific journals publishing astrological research). Some astrologers have argued that few practitioners today pursue scientific testing of astrology because they feel that working with clients on a daily basis provides a personal validation for them.^[41][44]

Another argument made by astrologers is that most studies of astrology do not reflect the nature of astrological practice and that the scientific method does not apply to astrology.^[45][46] Some astrology proponents claim that the prevailing attitudes and motives of many opponents of astrology introduce conscious or unconscious bias in the formulation of hypotheses to be tested, the conduct of the tests, and the reporting of results.^{[43][11][12][47][2]}

Early science, particularly geometry and astronomy/astrology, was connected to the divine for most medieval scholars. The compass in this 13th century manuscript is a symbol of God’s act of creation, as many believed that there was something intrinsically divine or perfect that could be found in circles.

[edit] Mechanism

As astrologers have been consistently unable to present physical mechanisms for astrology,^[48][49] few modern astrologers believe in a direct causal relationship between heavenly bodies and earthly events.^[41] An editorial published by the Astronomical Society of the Pacific reports that they can find no evidence for a scientifically defined mechanism by which celestial objects can influence terrestrial affairs.^[11] Some researchers have posited acausal, purely correlative, relationships between astrological observations and events, such as the theory of synchronicity proposed by Carl Jung.^[50] Others have posited a basis in divination.^[51] Still others have argued that empirical correlations can stand on their own epistemologically, and do not need the support of any theory or mechanism.^[43] To some observers, these non-mechanistic concepts raise serious questions about the feasibility of validating astrology through scientific testing, and some have gone so far as to reject the applicability of the scientific method to astrology almost entirely.^[43] Some astrologers, on the other hand, believe that astrology is amenable to the scientific method, given sufficiently sophisticated analytical methods, and they cite pilot studies they claim support this view.^[52] Consequently, several astrologers have called for or advocated continuing studies of astrology based on statistical validation.^[53]

[edit] Research

The Mars effect: relative frequency of the diurnal position of Mars in the birth chart of eminent athletes.

Astrology has repeatedly failed to demonstrate its effectiveness in numerous controlled studies.^[10][11] Effect size studies in astrology conclude that the mean accuracy of astrological predictions is no greater than what is expected by chance, and astrology’s perceived performance has disappeared on critical inspection.^[54] When testing for cognitive, behavioral, physical and other variables, one study of astrological “time twins” showed that human characteristics are not molded by the influence of the Sun, Moon and planets at the time of birth.^[54][55] Skeptics of astrology also suggest that the perceived accuracy of astrological interpretations and descriptions of one’s personality can be accounted for by the fact that people tend to exaggerate positive ‘hits’ and overlook whatever does not fit, especially when vague language is used.^[54] They also argue that statistical research is often wrongly seen as evidence for astrology due to uncontrolled artifacts.^[56] A large-scale study, with a sample size of about 15,000 “astro-twins”, was published in 2006. It examined the relationship between date of birth and individual differences in personality and general intelligence, and found no evidence that a connection existed.^[57] It also found no relationship between the zodiacal signs and participants’ personal traits.^[57]

French psychologist and statistician Michel Gauquelin claimed to have found correlations between some planetary positions and certain human traits such as vocations.^[58] Gauquelin’s most widely known claim is known as the Mars effect, which is said to demonstrate a correlation between the planet Mars occupying certain positions in the sky more often at the birth of eminent sports champions than at the birth of ordinary people. A similar claim is made by Richard Tarnas in his work Cosmos and Psyche, in which he explores correspondences between planetary alignments and historically significant events and individuals.

Since its original publication in 1955, the Mars effect has been the subject of critical studies and skeptical publications which refute it,^[59][60][61] and studies in fringe journals claiming to support or expand the original claims.^[62][63] Gauquelin’s research has not received mainstream scientific notice.

The Forer effect is seen in astrology when most people simply accept their horoscopes as custom even if, by logic, it would mean that 1/12 of the world would have the exact same day or week.

abortion

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An abortion is the removal or expulsion of an embryo or fetus from the uterus, resulting in or caused by its death. The spontaneous expulsion of a fetus or embryo before the 20th week of gestational age^[1] is commonly known as a miscarriage.^[2] Induced abortion is the removal or expulsion of an embryo or fetus by medical, surgical, or other means at any point during human pregnancy for therapeutic or elective reasons.^[3] The approximate number of induced abortions performed worldwide in 2003 was 42 million.^[4]

Throughout recorded history, abortion has been induced by various traditional medicine methods, including botanical abortifacients, the use of sharpened tools, and abdominal pressure.

The moral and legal aspects of abortion are subject to intense social debate in many parts of the world. Aspects of this debate can include the public health impact of unsafe or illegal abortion as well as legal abortion’s effect upon crime rates, and the ramifications of sex-selective practices. Other debates include the abortion-breast cancer hypothesis, post-abortion syndrome, and fetal pain. Moral arguments often equate abortion to murder, or denial of abortion to oppression of women.

The history of modern Western abortion laws can be traced back to English common law, which allowed abortion before the “quickening” of the fetus. Currently, abortion laws vary from country to country, with regard to religious, moral, and cultural sensibilities.

Contents [hide] 1 Forms of abortion 1.1 Spontaneous abortion 1.2 Induced abortion 1.2.1 Methods 1.2.1.1 Surgical 1.2.1.2 Medical 1.2.1.3 Other means 2 Incidence of induced abortion 2.1 By gestational age and method 2.2 By personal and social factors 3 Health considerations 4 History of abortion 5 Social issues 5.1 Effect upon crime rate 5.2 Sex-selective abortion 5.3 Unsafe abortion 6 Abortion debate 6.1 Public opinion 6.2 Arguments within the debate 6.2.1 Breast cancer hypothesis 6.2.2 Mental health 6.2.3 Fetal pain debate 7 Abortion law 8 See also 9 References 10 External links

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Forms of abortion

In medical terminology, the term abortion refers to two basic phenomena: miscarriage (spontaneous abortion) and induced abortion. In common parlance, the term “abortion” is synonymous with induced abortion. However, in medical texts, the word ‘abortion’ might exclusively refer to, or may also refer to, spontaneous abortion (miscarriage).

Spontaneous abortion

Main article: Miscarriage

Spontaneous abortion is the expulsion of an embryo or fetus due to accidental trauma or natural causes. Most miscarriages are due to incorrect replication of chromosomes; they can also be caused by environmental factors. Spontaneous abortions, generally referred to as miscarriages, occur when an embryo or fetus is lost due to natural causes before the 20th week of gestation. A pregnancy that ends between 20 and 37 weeks of gestation, if it results in a live-born infant, is known as a “premature birth“. When a fetus dies in utero after about 20 weeks, or during delivery, it is termed a “stillbirth“. Premature births and stillbirths are generally not considered to be miscarriages although usage of these terms can sometimes overlap.

Most miscarriages occur very early in pregnancy. Between 10% and 50% of pregnancies end in clinically apparent miscarriage, depending upon the age and health of the pregnant woman.^[5] In most cases, they occur so early in the pregnancy that the woman is not even aware that she was pregnant. One study testing hormones for ovulation and pregnancy showed a rate of pregnancy in exposed ovulatory cycles of 59.6%; with 61.9% of conceptuses lost prior to 12 weeks of which 91.7% occuried subclinically, without the knowledge of the mother.^[6]

The risk of spontaneous abortion decreases sharply after the 10th week LMP,^[7] with a loss rate between 8.5 weeks LMP and birth of about two percent; pregnancy loss is “virtually complete by the end of the embryonic period.”^[8]

This risk of spontaneous abortion is greater in those with a known history of several spontaneous abortions or an induced abortion, those with systemic diseases, and those over age 35. Other causes can be infection (of either the woman or fetus), immune response, or serious systemic disease. A spontaneous abortion can also be caused by accidental trauma; intentional trauma to cause miscarriage is considered induced abortion or feticide.^[9]

Induced abortion

A pregnancy can be intentionally aborted in many ways. The manner selected depends chiefly upon the gestational age of the embryo or fetus, in addition to the legality, regional availability, and doctor-patient preference for specific procedures. Reasons for procuring induced abortions are typically characterized as either therapeutic or elective. An abortion is considered to be therapeutic when it is performed to:

• to save the life of the pregnant woman;^[10]
• to preserve the woman’s physical or mental health;^[10]
• to terminate pregnancy that would result in a child born with a congenital disorder that would be fatal or associated with significant morbidity;^[10] or
• to selectively reduce the number of fetuses to lessen health risks associated with multiple pregnancy.^[10]

An abortion is considered to be elective if it is performed for any other reason.

Methods

Surgical

Gestational age may determine which abortion methods are practiced.

In the first 12 weeks, suction-aspiration or vacuum abortion is the most common method.^[11] Manual Vacuum aspiration (MVA) abortion, consists of removing the fetus or embryo by suction using a manual syringe, while electric vacuum aspiration (EVA) abortion uses an electric pump. These techniques are comparable, and differ in the mechanism used to apply suction, how early in pregnancy they can be used, and whether cervical dilation is necessary. MVA, also known as “mini-suction” and “menstrual extraction“, can be used in very early pregnancy, and does not require cervical dilation. Surgical techniques are sometimes referred to as ‘Suction (or surgical) Termination Of Pregnancy’ (STOP). From the 15th week until approximately the 26th, dilation and evacuation (D&E) is used. D&E consists of opening the cervix of the uterus and emptying it using surgical instruments and suction.

Dilation and curettage (D&C), the second most common method of abortion, is a standard gynecological procedure performed for a variety of reasons, including examination of the uterine lining for possible malignancy, investigation of abnormal bleeding, and abortion. Curettage refers to cleaning the walls of the uterus with a curette. The World Health Organization recommends this procedure, also called sharp curettage, only when MVA is unavailable.^[12] The term D and C, or sometimes suction curette, is used as a euphemism for the first trimester abortion procedure, whichever the method used.

Other techniques must be used to induce abortion in the second trimester. Premature delivery can be induced with prostaglandin; this can be coupled with injecting the amniotic fluid with caustic solutions containing saline or urea. After the 16th week of gestation, abortions can be induced by intact dilation and extraction (IDX) (also called intrauterine cranial decompression), which requires surgical decompression of the fetus’s head before evacuation. IDX is sometimes called “partial-birth abortion,” which has been federally banned in the United States. A hysterotomy abortion is a procedure similar to a caesarean section, and is performed under general anesthesia because it is considered major abdominal surgery. It requires a smaller incision than a caesarean section and is used during later stages of pregnancy.^[13]

From the 20th to 23rd week of gestation, an injection to stop the fetal heart can be used as the first phase of the surgical abortion procedure^[14] to ensure that the fetus is not born alive.^[15]

Medical

Main article: Medical abortion

Effective in the first trimester of pregnancy, non-surgical abortions (referred to as ‘medical abortions’) comprise 10% of all abortions in the United States and Europe. Combined regimens include methotrexate or mifepristone, followed by a prostaglandin (either misoprostol or gemeprost: misoprostol is used in the U.S.; gemeprost is used in the UK and Sweden.) When used within 49 days gestation, approximately 92% of women undergoing medical abortion with a combined regimen completed it without surgical intervention.^[16] Misoprostol can be used alone, but has a lower efficacy rate than combined regimens. In cases of failure of medical abortion, vacuum or manual aspiration is used to complete the abortion surgically.

Other means

Bas-relief at Angkor Wat, dated circa 1150, depicting a demon performing an abortion by pounding a mallet into a woman’s belly.

Historically, a number of herbs reputed to possess abortifacient properties have been used in folk medicine: tansy, pennyroyal, black cohosh, and the now-extinct silphium (see history of abortion).^[17] The use of herbs in such a manner can cause serious — even lethal — side effects, such as multiple organ failure, and is not recommended by physicians.^[18]

Abortion is sometimes attempted by causing trauma to the abdomen. The degree of force, if severe, can cause serious internal injuries without necessarily succeeding in inducing miscarriage.^[19] Both accidental and deliberate abortions of this kind can be subject to criminal liability in many countries. In Burma, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand, there is an ancient tradition of attempting abortion through forceful abdominal massage.^[20]

Reported methods of unsafe, self-induced abortion include misuse of misoprostol, and insertion of non-surgical implements such as knitting needles and clothes hangers into the uterus. These methods are rarely seen in developed countries where surgical abortion is legal and available.^[21]

Incidence of induced abortion

The incidence and reasons for induced abortion vary regionally. It has been estimated that approximately 46 million abortions are performed worldwide every year. Of these, 26 million are said to occur in places where abortion is legal; the other 20 million happen where the procedure is illegal. Some countries, such as Belgium (11.2 per 100 known pregnancies) and the Netherlands (10.6 per 100), have a low rate of induced abortion, while others like Russia (62.6 per 100) and Vietnam (43.7 per 100) have a comparatively high rate. The world ratio is 26 induced abortions per 100 known pregnancies.^[22]

By gestational age and method

Histogram of abortions by gestational age in England and Wales during 2004. Average is 9.5 weeks.

Abortion rates also vary depending on the stage of pregnancy and the method practiced. In 2003, from data collected in those areas of the United States that sufficiently reported gestational age, it was found that 88.2% of abortions were conducted at or prior to 12 weeks, 10.4% from 13 to 20 weeks, and 1.4% at or after 21 weeks. 90.9% of these were classified as having been done by “curettage” (suction-aspiration, Dilation and curettage, Dilation and evacuation), 7.7% by “medical” means (mifepristone), 0.4% by “intrauterine instillation” (saline or prostaglandin), and 1.0% by “other” (including hysterotomy and hysterectomy).^[23] The Guttmacher Institute estimated there were 2,200 intact dilation and extraction procedures in the U.S. during 2000; this accounts for 0.17% of the total number of abortions performed that year.^[24] Similarly, in England and Wales in 2006, 89% of terminations occurred at or under 12 weeks, 9% between 13 to 19 weeks, and 1.5% at or over 20 weeks. 64% of those reported were by vacuum aspiration, 6% by D&E, and 30% were medical.^[25]

By personal and social factors

A bar chart depicting selected data from the 1998 AGI meta-study on the reasons women stated for having an abortion.

A 1998 aggregated study, from 27 countries, on the reasons women seek to terminate their pregnancies concluded that common factors cited to have influenced the abortion decision were: desire to delay or end childbearing, concern over the interruption of work or education, issues of financial or relationship stability, and perceived immaturity.^[26] A 2004 study in which American women at clinics answered a questionnaire yielded similar results.^[27] In Finland and the United States, concern for the health risks posed by pregnancy in individual cases was not a factor commonly given; however, in Bangladesh, India, and Kenya health concerns were cited by women more frequently as reasons for having an abortion.^[26] 1% of women in the 2004 survey-based U.S. study became pregnant as a result of rape and 0.5% as a result of incest.^[27] Another American study in 2002 concluded that 54% of women who had an abortion were using a form of contraception at the time of becoming pregnant while 46% were not. Inconsistent use was reported by 49% of those using condoms and 76% of those using the combined oral contraceptive pill; 42% of those using condoms reported failure through slipping or breakage.^[28]

Some abortions are undergone as the result of societal pressures. These might include the stigmatization of disabled persons, preference for children of a specific sex, disapproval of single motherhood, insufficient economic support for families, lack of access to or rejection of contraceptive methods, or efforts toward population control (such as China’s one-child policy). These factors can sometimes result in compulsory abortion or sex-selective abortion.

Health considerations

Early-term surgical abortion is a simple procedure which is safer than childbirth when performed before the 16th week.^[29][30] Abortion methods, like most minimally invasive procedures, carry a small potential for serious complications.^[31][32] The risk of complications can increase depending on how far pregnancy has progressed.^[33][34]

Women typically experience minor pain during first-trimester abortion procedures. In a 1979 study of 2,299 patients, 97% reported experiencing some degree of pain. Patients rated the pain as being less than earache or toothache, but more than headache or backache.^[35]

Some practitioners advocate using minimal anaesthesia so the patient can alert them to possible complications. Others recommend general anaesthesia, to prevent patient movement, which might cause a perforation. General anaesthesia carries its own risks, including death, which is why public health officials recommend against its routine use.^{[citation needed]}

History of abortion

“French Periodical Pills.” An example of a clandestine advertisement published in an 1845 edition of the Boston Daily Times.

Main article: History of abortion

Induced abortion can be traced to ancient times.^[36] There is evidence to suggest that, historically, pregnancies were terminated through a number of methods, including the administration of abortifacient herbs, the use of sharpened implements, the application of abdominal pressure, and other techniques.

The Hippocratic Oath, the chief statement of medical ethics for Hippocratic physicians in Ancient Greece, forbade doctors from helping to procure an abortion by pessary. Soranus, a second-century Greek physician, suggested in his work Gynaecology that women wishing to abort their pregnancies should engage in energetic exercise, energetic jumping, carrying heavy objects, and riding animals. He also prescribed a number of recipes for herbal baths, pessaries, and bloodletting, but advised against the use of sharp instruments to induce miscarriage due to the risk of organ perforation.^[37] It is also believed that, in addition to using it as a contraceptive, the Ancient Greeks relied upon silphium as an abortifacient. Such folk remedies, however, varied in effectiveness and were not without risk. Tansy and pennyroyal, for example, are two poisonous herbs with serious side effects that have at times been used to terminate pregnancy.

Abortion in the 19th century continued, despite bans in both the United Kingdom and the United States, as the disguised, but nonetheless open, advertisement of services in the Victorian era suggests.^[38]

In the 20th century the Soviet Union (1919), Iceland (1935) and Sweden (1938) were among the first countries to legalize certain or all forms of abortion.^[39] In 1935 Nazi Germany, a law was passed permitting abortions for those deemed “hereditarily ill”, while women considered of “German stock” were specifically prohibited from having abortions.^{[40][41][42][43]}

Social issues

A number of complex issues exist in the debate over abortion. These, like the suggested effects upon health listed above, are a focus of research and a fixture of discussion among members on all sides of the controversy.

Effect upon crime rate

Main article: Legalized abortion and crime effect

A theory attempts to draw a correlation between the United States’ unprecedented nationwide decline of the overall crime rate during the 1990s and the decriminalization of abortion 20 years prior.

The suggestion was brought to widespread attention by a 1999 academic paper, The Impact of Legalized Abortion on Crime, authored by the economists Steven D. Levitt and John Donohue. They attributed the drop in crime to a reduction in individuals said to have a higher statistical probability of committing crimes: unwanted children, especially those born to mothers who are African-American, impoverished, adolescent, uneducated, and single. The change coincided with what would have been the adolescence, or peak years of potential criminality, of those who had not been born as a result of Roe v. Wade and similar cases. Donohue and Levitt’s study also noted that states which legalized abortion before the rest of the nation experienced the lowering crime rate pattern earlier, and those with higher abortion rates had more pronounced reductions.^[44]

Fellow economists Christopher Foote and Christopher Goetz criticized the methodology in the Donohue-Levitt study, noting a lack of accommodation for statewide yearly variations such as cocaine use, and recalculating based on incidence of crime per capita; they found no statistically significant results.^[45] Levitt and Donohue responded to this by presenting an adjusted data set which took into account these concerns and reported that the data maintained the statistical significance of their initial paper.^[46]

Such research has been criticized by some as being utilitarian, discriminatory as to race and socioeconomic class, and as promoting eugenics as a solution to crime.^[47][48] Levitt states in his book Freakonomics that they are neither promoting nor negating any course of action—merely reporting data as economists.

Sex-selective abortion

Main article: Sex-selective abortion and infanticide

The advent of both sonography and amniocentesis has allowed parents to determine sex before birth. This has led to the occurrence of sex-selective abortion or the targeted termination of a fetus based upon its sex.

It is suggested that sex-selective abortion might be partially responsible for the noticeable disparities between the birth rates of male and female children in some places. The preference for male children is reported in many areas of Asia, and abortion used to limit female births has been reported in Mainland China, Taiwan, South Korea, and India.^[49]

In India, the economic role of men, the costs associated with dowries, and a Hindu tradition which dictates that funeral rites must be performed by a male relative have led to a cultural preference for sons.^[50] The widespread availability of diagnostic testing, during the 1970s and ’80s, led to advertisements for services which read, “Invest 500 rupees [for a sex test] now, save 50,000 rupees [for a dowry] later.”^[51] In 1991, the male-to-female sex ratio in India was skewed from its biological norm of 105 to 100, to an average of 108 to 100.^[52] Researchers have asserted that between 1985 and 2005 as many as 10 million female fetuses may have been selectively aborted.^[53] The Indian government passed an official ban of pre-natal sex screening in 1994 and moved to pass a complete ban of sex-selective abortion in 2002.^[54]

In the People’s Republic of China, there is also a historic son preference. The implementation of the one-child policy in 1979, in response to population concerns, led to an increased disparity in the sex ratio as parents attempted to circumvent the law through sex-selective abortion or the abandonment of unwanted daughters.^[55] Sex-selective abortion might be an influence on the shift from the baseline male-to-female birth rate to an elevated national rate of 117:100 reported in 2002. The trend was more pronounced in rural regions: as high as 130:100 in Guangdong and 135:100 in Hainan.^[56] A ban upon the practice of sex-selective abortion was enacted in 2003.^[57]

Unsafe abortion

Soviet poster circa 1925, promoting hospital abortions. Title translation: “Abortions performed by either trained or self-taught midwives not only maim the woman, they also often lead to death.”

Main article: Unsafe abortion

Where and when access to safe abortion has been barred, due to explicit sanctions or general unavailability, women seeking to terminate their pregnancies have sometimes resorted to unsafe methods.

“Back-alley abortion” is a slang term for any abortion not practiced under generally accepted standards of sanitation and professionalism. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines an unsafe abortion as being, “a procedure…carried out by persons lacking the necessary skills or in an environment that does not conform to minimal medical standards, or both.”^[58] This can include a person without medical training, a professional health provider operating in sub-standard conditions, or the woman herself.

Unsafe abortion remains a public health concern today due to the higher incidence and severity of its associated complications, such as incomplete abortion, sepsis, hemorrhage, and damage to internal organs. WHO estimates that 19 million unsafe abortions occur around the world annually and that 68,000 of these result in the woman’s death.^[58] Complications of unsafe abortion are said to account, globally, for approximately 13% of all maternal mortalities, with regional estimates including 12% in Asia, 25% in Latin America, and 13% in sub-Saharan Africa.^[59] A 2007 study published in the The Lancet found that, although the global rate of abortion declined from 45.6 million in 1995 to 41.6 million in 2003, unsafe procedures still accounted for 48% of all abortions performed in 2003.^[60] Health education, access to family planning, and improvements in health care during and after abortion have been proposed to address this phenomenon.^[61]

Abortion debate

Pro-choice activists near the Washington Monument at the March for Women’s Lives.

Pro-life activists at the March for Life in 2007. The rally is held annually in Washington, DC.

Main articles: Abortion debate, Pro-choice, and Pro-life

In the history of abortion, induced abortion has been the source of considerable debate, controversy, and activism. An individual’s position on the complex ethical, moral, philosophical, biological, and legal issues is often related to his or her value system. Opinions of abortion may be best described as being a combination of beliefs on its morality, and beliefs on the responsibility, ethical scope, and proper extent of governmental authorities in public policy. Religious ethics also has an influence upon both personal opinion and the greater debate over abortion (see religion and abortion).

Abortion debates, especially pertaining to abortion laws, are often spearheaded by advocacy groups belonging to one of two camps. In the United States, most often those in favor of greater legal restrictions on, or even complete prohibition of abortion, describe themselves as pro-life while those against legal restrictions on abortion describe themselves as pro-choice. Both are used to indicate the central principles in arguments for and against abortion: “Is the fetus a human being with a fundamental right to life?” for pro-life advocates, and, for those who are pro-choice, “Does a woman have the right to choose whether or not to continue a pregnancy?”

In both public and private debate, arguments presented in favor of or against abortion focus on either the moral permissibility of an induced abortion, or justification of laws permitting or restricting abortion. Arguments on morality and legality tend to collide and combine, complicating the issue at hand.

Debate also focuses on whether the pregnant woman should have to notify and/or have the consent of others in distinct cases: a minor, her parents; a legally-married or common-law wife, her husband; or a pregnant woman, the biological father. In a 2003 Gallup poll in the United States, 79% of male and 67% of female respondents were in favor of spousal notification; overall support was 72% with 26% opposed.^[62]

Public opinion

Main article: Societal attitudes towards abortion

A number of opinion polls around the world have explored public opinion regarding the issue of abortion. Results have varied from poll to poll, country to country, and region to region, while varying with regard to different aspects of the issue.

A May 2005 survey examined attitudes toward abortion in 10 European countries, asking polltakers whether they agreed with the statement, “If a woman doesn’t want children, she should be allowed to have an abortion”. The highest level of approval was 81% (in the Czech Republic); the lowest was 47% (in Poland).^[63]

In North America, a December 2001 poll surveyed Canadian opinion on abortion, asking Canadians in what circumstances they believe abortion should be permitted; 32% responded that they believe abortion should be legal in all circumstances, 52% that it should be legal in certain circumstances, and 14% that it should be legal in no circumstances. A similar poll in January 2006 surveyed people in the United States about U.S. opinion on abortion; 33% said that abortion should be “permitted only in cases such as rape, incest or to save the woman’s life”, 27% said that abortion should be “permitted in all cases”, 15% that it should be “permitted, but subject to greater restrictions than it is now”, 17% said that it should “only be permitted to save the woman’s life”, and 5% said that it should “never” be permitted.^[64] A November 2005 poll in Mexico found that 73.4% think abortion should not be legalized while 11.2% think it should.^[65]

Of attitudes in South and Central America, a December 2003 survey found that 30% of Argentines thought that abortion in Argentina should be allowed “regardless of situation”, 47% that it should be allowed “under some circumstances”, and 23% that it should not be allowed “regardless of situation”.^[66] A March 2007 poll regarding the abortion law in Brazil found that 65% of Brazilians believe that it “should not be modified”, 16% that it should be expanded “to allow abortion in other cases”, 10% that abortion should be “decriminalized”, and 5% were “not sure”.^[67] A July 2005 poll in Colombia found that 65.6% said they thought that abortion should remain illegal, 26.9% that it should be made legal, and 7.5% that they were unsure.^[68]

Arguments within the debate

Breast cancer hypothesis

Main article: Abortion-breast cancer hypothesis

The “abortion-breast cancer (ABC) hypothesis” (supporters call it the abortion-breast cancer link) posits that induced abortion increases the risk of developing breast cancer;^[69] it is a controversial subject and the current scientific consensus has concluded there is no significant association between first-trimester abortion and breast cancer risk.^[70][71][72]

In early pregnancy, levels of estrogen increase, leading to breast growth in preparation for lactation. The hypothesis proposes that if this process is interrupted by an abortion – before full maturity in the third trimester – then more relatively vulnerable immature cells could be left than there were prior to the pregnancy, resulting in a greater potential risk of breast cancer. The hypothesis mechanism was first proposed and explored in rat studies conducted in the 1980s.^[73][74][75]

The American Cancer Society concludes that presently the evidence does not support a causal abortion-breast cancer association,^[76] yet a causal link continues to be championed by pro-life activists like Dr. Joel Brind, Dr. Angela Lanfranchi and Karen Malec.^[72] In the past, pro-life advocates have sought legal action regarding disclosure of the abortion-breast cancer issue. This brought short-term legal and political intervention culminating with the Bush Administration changing the National Cancer Institute (NCI) fact sheet from concluding no link to a more ambiguous assessment.^[77] In February 2003, the NCI responded by conducting a workshop with over 100 experts on the issue, which determined from selected evidence that it was well-established “abortion is not associated with an increase in breast cancer risk.”^[78]

Though the scientific community is largely skeptical of the hypothesis and has been rejected by some;^[77][78] the ongoing promotion of an abortion-breast cancer “link” by pro-life advocates and medical associations is seen by others as merely a part of the current pro-life “woman-centered” strategy against abortion.^[79][80][81] Pro-life groups maintain they are providing legally necessary informed consent;^[82] a concern shared by conservative Congressman Dr. Dave Weldon.^[83] While early research indicated a correlation between breast cancer and abortion;^[84][85] the current scientific consensus has solidified with the publication of large prospective cohort studies which find no clear association between abortion and breast cancer.^[86][87] These studies along with all relevant research strive to remove from their results the many confounding factors, such as delayed child bearing (parity), which affect breast cancer risk apart from abortion. The abortion-breast cancer hypothesis continues to incite mostly political and some scientific debate.^[72]

Mental health

Main article: Abortion and mental health

The relationship between induced abortion and mental health is an area of political and scientific controversy.^[88][89][90] A number of studies have concluded that abortion is associated with no more psychological risk than carrying an unwanted pregnancy to term. Other studies have reported a statistical correlation between abortion and negative psychological effects, though no studies have demonstrated a direct causal relationship.^[91][81][92] Pre-existing factors in a woman’s life, such as emotional attachment to the pregnancy, lack of social support, pre-existing psychiatric illness, and conservative views on abortion increase the likelihood of experiencing negative feelings after an abortion.^[93][94][95]

In a 1990 review, the American Psychological Association has found that “severe negative reactions [after abortion] are rare and are in line with those following other normal life stresses.”^[92] In light of additional studies undertaken since that time, both the APA and the United Kingdom Royal College of Psychiatrists are performing systematic reviews of the medical literature in order to update their position statements.

Some proposed negative psychological effects of abortion have been referred to by pro-life advocates as a separate condition called “post-abortion syndrome.” However, the existence of “post-abortion syndrome” is not recognized by any medical or psychological organization,^[96] and some physicians and pro-choice advocates have argued that the effort to popularize the idea of a “post-abortion syndrome” is a tactic used by pro-life advocates for political purposes.^{[88][81][97][98]}

On March 14, 2008, the Royal College of Psychiatrists released a statement saying “The specific issue of whether or not induced abortion has harmful effects on women’s mental health remains to be fully resolved. The current research evidence base is inconclusive – some studies indicate no evidence of harm, whilst other studies identify a range of mental disorders following abortion.”^[90]

Fetal pain debate

Main article: Fetal pain

The existence and implications of fetal pain are scientifically and politically disputed. A controversial^[99] review by researchers from the University of California, San Francisco in JAMA concluded that data from dozens of medical reports and studies indicate that fetuses are unlikely to feel pain until the third trimester of pregnancy.^[100][101] There is an emerging consensus among developmental neurobiologists that the establishment of thalamocortical connections (at about 26 weeks) is a critical event with regard to fetal perception of pain.^[102] Nevertheless, because pain can involve sensory, emotional and cognitive factors, it may be “impossible to know” when painful experiences are perceived, even if it is known when thalamocortical connections are established.^[103]

Whether a fetus has the ability to feel pain and to suffer is part of the abortion debate.^[104][105] For example, legislation has been proposed by pro-life advocates requiring abortion providers to tell a woman that the fetus may feel pain during the abortion procedure, and that require her to accept or decline anesthesia for the fetus.^[106]

Abortion law

Main articles: Abortion law and History of abortion law

See also: Reproductive rights

International status of abortion law (detail).

Before the scientific discovery that human development begins at fertilization, English common law allowed abortions to be performed before “quickening“, the earliest perception of fetal movement by a woman during pregnancy, until both pre- and post-quickening abortions were criminalized by Lord Ellenborough’s Act in 1803.^[107] In 1861, the British Parliament passed the Offences Against the Person Act, which continued to outlaw abortion and served as a model for similar prohibitions in some other nations.^[108] The Soviet Union, with legislation in 1920, and Iceland, with legislation in 1935, were two of the first countries to generally allow abortion. The second half of the 20th century saw the liberalization of abortion laws in other countries. The Abortion Act 1967 allowed abortion for limited reasons in the United Kingdom. In the 1973 case, Roe v. Wade, the United States Supreme Court struck down state laws banning abortion, ruling that such laws violated an implied right to privacy in the United States Constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada, similarly, in the case of R. v. Morgentaler, discarded its criminal code regarding abortion in 1988, after ruling that such restrictions violated the security of person guaranteed to women under the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Canada later struck down provincial regulations of abortion in the case of R. v. Morgentaler (1993). By contrast, abortion in Ireland was affected by the addition of an amendment to the Irish Constitution in 1983 by popular referendum, recognizing “the right to life of the unborn”.

Current laws pertaining to abortion are diverse. Religious, moral, and cultural sensibilities continue to influence abortion laws throughout the world. The right to life, the right to liberty, the right to security of person, and the right to reproductive health are major issues of human rights that are sometimes used as justification for the existence or absence of laws controlling abortion. Many countries in which abortion is legal require that certain criteria be met in order for an abortion to be obtained, often, but not always, using a trimester-based system to regulate the window of legality:

• In the United States, some states impose a 24-hour waiting period before the procedure, prescribe the distribution of information on fetal development, or require that parents be contacted if their minor daughter requests an abortion.
• In the United Kingdom, as in some other countries, two doctors must first certify that an abortion is medically or socially necessary before it can be performed.

Other countries, in which abortion is normally illegal, will allow one to be performed in the case of rape, incest, or danger to the pregnant woman’s life or health. A few nations ban abortion entirely: Chile, El Salvador, Malta, Ireland and Nicaragua, although in 2006 the Chilean government began the free distribution of emergency contraception.^[109][110] In Bangladesh, abortion is illegal, but the government has long supported a network of “menstrual regulation clinics”, where menstrual extraction (manual vacuum aspiration) can be performed as menstrual hygiene.^[111]

In places where abortion is illegal or is socially such a stigma that it would not be possible to continue to live there if it became known that a woman had undergone one, pregnant women may engage in medical tourism and travel overseas to countries where they can undergo a termination of their pregnancy. In the USA, it is not unusual for women to travel from one state to another for reasons of termination of pregnancy.

Pusa Polytechnic

Pusa Polytechnic is a leading technology school in India established in 1962. It is affiliated to the Board of Technical Education (BTE), New Delhi and provides Diploma and Post Grad Diploma level technical education to its students.

Pusa Polytechnic has implemented the Community Polytechnic schematic of Ministry of Human Resource Development of Government of India.

Introduction

Pusa Polytechnic is one of the oldest institutes in the city of Delhi, established on the year 1962. During this span of 46

years of its existence this institute has established its reputation amongst the top institutions in India and has gained a high

reputation in society and industry alike. It has also become very popular amongst the students of the Delhi region as well

as other states of India. The Polytechnic is affiliated to the Board of Technical Education and All India Council of

Technical Education (AICTE).

Pusa Polytechnic also provides dormitories (hostel) for boys, canteen facilities and a sports room for recreational activities

and makes available student bus passes (Delhi Transport Corporation, DTC) and railway passes. Pusa Polytechnic has a

history of placing its students in various reputable companies. The Industrial Training and Laison Officer is responsible for

the arrangements of any on Campus interviews for Pusa Polytechnic.

In addition to the Audio-Visual training sessions, students are also provided with workshop training and industrial visits,

organized for the students by the institute.

The polytechnic has well qualified staff as per AICTE(All India Council For Technical Education) norms and AICTE pay

scales/service conditions have been implemented. In this Institute the age of retirement for the teaching staff has been

increased to 62 years to retain its best lecturers. This polytechnic has implemented Community Polytechnic scheme of

Ministry of HRD (Government of India) and Stree Shakti Camps are attended by the staff of the Institute.

Admission Procedure

Prospective students must appear for a Common Entrance Test conducted by the Board of Technical Education (BTE).

The minimum eligibility of to qualify for the CET is 45% for general category and 40% for the reserved categories in

Secondary School Examination.

Courses Offered

————————————————————————

Discipline —————————–    Intake     Full Time/Part Time
Civil Engineering                                                         60              Full Time
Automobile Engineering                                             40             Full Time
Electrical Engineering                                                 120              Full Time
Electronics & Communication Engineering                 90              Full Time
Mechanical Engineering                                              120             Full Time
Printing Technology                                                    50              Full Time
Construction Engineering                                            30              Full Time
Electronics & Communication Engineering                  30            Part Time
Automobile Engineering                                               30             Part Time